The material foundations of a low-carbon economy

The transition to a low-carbon environment is rapidly accelerating and with it the potential for severe environmental social degradation. extraction processing of key materials have already begun affect developing economies, policy changes are essential ensuring just transition. energy system has deliver multiple benefits society environment. These range from decreasing climate-related deaths increasing life-saving systems in as well abstract such addressing geopolitical tension fostering collaboration. As accelerates, policymakers examine contours shift recently paid attention material requirements new technologies. This follows fact that future system, under many different scenarios, will be more intensive than current one.1Lee J. Bazilian M. Sovacool B. Hund K. Jowitt S.M. Nguyen T.P. Manberger A. Kah Greene S. Galeazzi C. et al.Reviewing metal security transitions.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020; 124: 109789Crossref Scopus (36) Google Scholar rapid diffusion technologies lithium-ion batteries, wind turbines, solar photovoltaics ensures these minerals metals become successful transitions remain focus concerns. Yet nations begin develop aggressive climate change trade agreements, comparatively little progress been made detrimental effects continuous mineral processing.2Lee Responsible or reckless? A critical review assessments supply chains.Environ. Res. Lett. 15: 103009Crossref (8) mining industry long history degradation, questions around optimal solutions address “resource curse.”3Ross M.L. political economy resource curse.World Polit. 1999; 51: 297-322Crossref (956) Sustainable development concerns date include use child labor cobalt sourcing, impact lithium on nearby ecosystems, copper pollution vicinity mines, toxicity rare-earth elements, along other impacts transition.4Walt V. Meyer Blood, sweat, batteries.Fortune. 2018; (August 23, 2018)http://fortune.com/longform/blood-sweat-and-batteries/Google Scholar,5Katwala spiralling cost our battery addiction.Wired. 5, 2018)https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impactGoogle Given large demand increases likely, there exists significant risk shocks create conditions where damaging prospects attractive—and environmental, social, governance considerations get pushed aside. It therefore important acknowledge inherent tensions exist between building sustainable not managing understanding sources which built. Although challenge, care must taken minimize risks possibility unintended consequences. up countries driving technological help ensure managed way enables instead tarnishing its goals. required uncommon Earth’s crust, footprint production highly concentrated (Figure 1) often heavily reliant fragile chains.6Sovacool B.K. Ali S.H. Radley Nemery Okatz Mulvaney D. future.Science. 367: 30-33Crossref PubMed (142) geographic concentrations can lend this lack diversity, but also partially explained by unbalanced foreign direct investments relatively limited interest international companies.7Foreign PolicyMining future: how China set dominate next Industrial Revolution.https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/05/01/mining-the-future-china-critical-minerals-metals/Date: 2019Google For example, areas Lithium Triangle (Bolivia, Chile, Argentina) contain 64% world’s resources, even estimates, they account only half global production.8US Geological SurveyMineral commodity summaries 2021.https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021.pdfDate: 2021Google Bolivia alone largest lithium, all reserves combined, investors hesitant nation because historical instability technical burdens would country overcome.9Eisler Bolivian lithium: why you should expect any “white gold rush” wake Morales overthrow.The Conversation. 2019; (November 15, 2019)http://theconversation.com/bolivian-lithium-why-you-should-not-expect-any-white-gold-rush-in-the-wake-of-morales-overthrow-127139Google To day, Bolivia’s remains virtually non-existent, whereas Chile’s struggling regulation gauge risks.8US Scholar,10Sherwood once leader, loses ground rivals.Reuters. (May 30, 2019)https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chile-lithium-analysis-idUSKCN1T00DMGoogle world, worse opaque markets poor price discovery inform appropriate investment production. Unfortunately, developed import metals, reflecting trend shifted burden countries—all while US profitable, reliable materials. an doubled number 100% over last 60 years doubling at least 50% 2).8US Scholar,11Fortier DeYoung Jr., J.H. Sangine E.S. Schnebele E.K. Comparison U.S. net reliance nonfuel commodities—a 60-year retrospective (1954–1984–2014).US Survey. 2015; (December 2015)https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20153082Crossref Of 35 identified today, 14 had 2020, additional greater 50%.8US despite steady growth imports, adapted expanded portfolio. In mine totaled $27.7 billion, 38% came result increased prices, copper, iron, zinc most rest.8US nations, dependence lead slowdown renewable limit their ability engage action, much devastating impacts. Mineral issue perspective importing country—it come form issues well. US’ nations’ drive hesitation involved “risky” means taking place willing accept do luxury worrying about supposed policy. Democratic Republic Congo (DRC), 72% extreme poverty (living less $1.90 day) though 80% country’s exports value ?$12 billion/year.8US Scholar,12International Council Mining & MetalsRole national economies.5th Edition. Contribution Index, 2020https://www.icmm.com/website/publications/pdfs/social-performance/2020/research_mci-5-2020.pdfGoogle DRC struggled decades conflict, making high-risk area entities.13United Nations Security CouncilReport panel experts illegal exploitation natural resources forms wealth Congo.https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/2001/357e.pdfDate: 2001Google cause same conflicts; UN reports 1998, neighboring planned invasion tactics into business deals companies nation’s vast businesses directly contributed conflicts favorable rates purchase agreements.13United More recently, found 255,000 artisanal miners DRC, 35,000 whom children working exceedingly harsh hazardous produce people $100,000 electric vehicles (EVs) “clean” technologies.2Lee Similarly, criticized Chile depleting local water across Atacama Desert, destroying creating unknown, long-term what produces support electronics batteries countries.5Katwala cadmium (used semiconductors photovoltaics) linked groundwater agricultural soil contamination, worker exposure chemicals, rarely discussed among advocates those who lobby green legislature.2Lee elements resulted chemical ammonium sulfate, chloride, radioactive now threaten rural aquifers, associated tariffs, monetary costs, almost always newspaper headlines discussions.14Standaert wrestles toxic aftermath rare earth mining.YaleEnvironment360. (July 2, 2019)https://e360.yale.edu/features/china-wrestles-with-the-toxic-aftermath-of-rare-earth-miningGoogle Scholar,15Deaux Vasquez Why Rare earths may leave Europe vulnerable.Bloomberg News. 2021; (February 16, 2021)https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-16/why-rare-earths-are-achilles-heal-for-europe-u-s-quicktakeGoogle Considering entire chains—from initial steps extracting ore manufacturing complex end products—is opportunities metals. some cases, chains being enabled refuse enact due diligence starkly rejected principles development. notably includes China, although control sites, coordinated invested dominant positions minerals.7Foreign majority drying water, used common purchased processed “don’t ask, don’t tell” approach sourcing.4Walt Scholar,8US remained primary investor through state-owned enterprises, dominates chain raw-material refining.16Bloomberg N.E.F. chain, rise.https://about.bnef.com/blog/china-dominates-the-lithium-ion-battery-supply-chain-but-europe-is-on-the-rise/Date: 2020Google Even situations can’t manage resource, enters agreements loans, analysts worry act debt trap force impoverished accommodating.4Walt Now cancelled DRC’s overdue $28 million loan early January signed memorandum Belt Road Initiative provided another $17 support, analysis seems topical ever. Once mixed normal parts then stops easy assign blame understand impact. result, clear trends go away own. Instead, build power represents opportunity improve governance.17Energy Resource Governance Initiativehttps://ergi.tools/Google enable development, mitigate problems, successfully navigate transition, proactive needed—one improves world out diversified high-income countries. plays role nations; regularly provides 25% countries’ income sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, South America.12International Few industrial activities capable influencing well-being providing stable enough raise standards living, teach lasting skills, provide jumping-off point service sectors. Because this, underlying needs undoubtedly if they’re properly, ideally multilateral manner. At time, Canada increasingly motivated strengthen domestic lessons coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). countries, growing resource-extraction sector could workers various industries facing declining employment, oil gas, hopes innovation. Projects Nevada moving forward response, better proper community consultation completed.18Kapoor kicks off era Western extraction.High Country 18, 2021)https://www.hcn.org/issues/53.3/indigenous-affairs-mining-nevada-lithium-mine-kicks-off-a-new-era-of-western-extractionGoogle secure path possible, achieved playbook. There still albeit fleeting, make requisite keep pace needs. end, we offer following five prioritization:1.A good chains: require public part goals put responsible sourcing tracking methodologies. private need work toward own aligned guidelines. US, mean bringing relationship forefront discussion action plans Green New Deal.2.Dramatic improvement trade: integrating governance, transparency, market design getting signals investment, hindering “bad” products entering chains. standardization reporting entities must. serve source disclosures (and minimal disclose) untenable modern age.3.Real small-scale (ASM) governments: developing, mining-focused living societal deeply tied overarching frameworks ASM. ASM viewed secondary consideration, regulations ignore dismiss portions population depend livelihood. experience together communities America shown mutual producers purchasers replicated regions.4.Work practices: modernize start carbon-reducing both level research, deployment institutional level, including best practices siting, electricity integration, efficiency. Pilot programs integrated (e.g., panels powering EVs trucks equipment) great promise expanded.5.A refined security: move stockpiling static approaches From perspective, procurement policies, internal generally transparency mechanisms industries. take mining-specific legislature executive order one President Biden find actionable specific tailored values.19The White HouseFact sheet: securing America’s chains.https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/02/24/fact-sheet-securing-americas-critical-supply-chains/Date: Many governments, investors, suppliers, consumers becoming aware nature anonymous, import-dependent reiterates foundations multifaceted approach. Yet, complexity stakeholders creates positive change. groups exert pressure ask types sustainable, everyone’s benefit privileged few. J.L. conceptualized investigated scope writing original draft. M.B. S.H.-S. draft, aided visualization conceptualization. J.L., M.B., worked reviewing editing draft final form.